SIOUX NATIVE AMERICAN BEADED KNIFE SHEATH DAVID HOWARD TRIBAL ART SIOUX NATIVE AMERICAN BEADED KNIFE SHEATH

The Sioux are groups of Native American tribes and
First Nations peoples in North America. The term can refer
to any ethnic group within the Great Sioux Nation or to any
of the nation's many language dialects. The Sioux comprise
three major divisions based on language divisions:
the Dakota, Lakota, and Nakota.

The Great Sioux War of 1876 comprised a series of battles
between the Lakota and allied tribes such as the Cheyenne
against the United States military. The earliest engagement
was the Battle of Powder River, and the final battle was the
Wolf Mountain. Included are the Battle of the Rosebud, Battle
of the Little Bighorn, Battle of Warbonnet Creek, Battle of Slim
Buttes, Battle of Cedar Creek, and the Dull Knife Fight. The Great
Sioux War of 1876–77 was also known as the Black Hills War, and
was centered on the Lakota tribes of the Sioux, although several
natives believe that the primary target of the United States military
was the Northern Cheyenne tribe. The series of battles occurred in
Montana territory, Dakota territory, and Wyoming territory, and
resulted in a victory for the United States military.

In the late 19th century, railroads wanted to build tracks
through Indian lands. The railroad companies hired hunters
to exterminate the bison herds, the Plains Indians' primary
food supply. The Dakota and Lakota were forced to accept
US-defined reservations in exchange for the rest of their lands
and farming and ranching of domestic cattle, as opposed to a
nomadic, hunting economy. During the first years of the
Reservation Era, the Sioux people depended upon annual
federal payments guaranteed by treaty for survival.

In Minnesota, the treaties of Traverse des Sioux and
Mendota in 1851 left the Dakota with a reservation 20 miles
wide on each side of the Minnesota River.

Today, half of all enrolled Sioux in the United States live
off reservation. Enrolled members in any of the Sioux tribes
in the United States are required to have ancestry that is at
least 1/4 degree Sioux (the equivalent to one grandparent).

In Canada, the Canadian government recognizes the
tribal community as First Nations. The land holdings
of these First Nations are called Indian reserves.

The massacre at Wounded Knee Creek was the last major
armed conflict between the Sioux and the United States. It was
described as a "massacre" by General Nelson A. Miles in a letter
to the Commissioner of Indian Affairs.

On December 29, 1890, five hundred troops of the 7th Cavalry
Regiment, supported by four Hotchkiss guns (a lightweight artillery piece
capable of rapid fire), surrounded an encampment of the Lakota Sioux
bands of the Miniconjou and Hunkpapa with orders to escort them to the
railroad for transport to Omaha, Nebraska.

By the time it was over, 25 troopers and more than 150
Lakota Sioux lay dead, including men, women, and children.
It remains unknown which side was responsible for the first
shot; some of the soldiers are believed to have been the victims
of "friendly fire" because the shooting took place at point-blank
range in chaotic conditions. Around 150 Lakota are believed
to have fled the chaos, many of whom may
have died from hypothermia.

The Lakȟóta people; also known as Teton, Thítȟuŋwaŋ
("prairie dwellers"), and Teton Sioux are part of a confederation
of seven related Sioux tribes, the Očhéthi Šakówiŋ or seven council
fires, and as such one of the Indigenous peoples of the Great Plains
of North America. They speak the Lakota language, the
westernmost of the three Siouan language groups, occupying
lands in both North and South Dakota.

Siouan language speakers may have originated in the lower
Mississippi River region and then migrated to or originated in the
Ohio Valley. They were agriculturalists and may have been part
of the Mound Builder civilization during the 9th–12th centuries CE.
In the late 16th and early 17th centuries, Dakota-Lakota speakers lived
in the upper Mississippi Region in present-day Minnesota, Wisconsin,
Iowa, and the Dakotas. Conflicts with Anishnaabe and Cree peoples
pushed the Lakota west onto the Great Plains in the
mid- to late-17th century.

Early Lakota history is recorded in their Winter counts
(Lakota: waníyetu wówapi), pictorial calendars painted on hides or later
recorded on paper. The Battiste Good winter count records Lakota history
back to 900 CE, when White Buffalo Calf Woman gave the Lakota people
the White Buffalo Calf Pipe.

Around 1730, Cheyenne people introduced the Lakota to horses,
called šuŋkawakaŋ ("dog [of] power/mystery/wonder"). After their adoption
of horse culture, Lakota society centered on the buffalo hunt on horseback.
The total population of the Sioux (Lakota, Santee, Yankton, and Yanktonai)
was estimated at 28,000 by French explorers in 1660. The Lakota population
was first estimated at 8,500 in 1805, growing steadily and reaching 16,110 in
1881. The Lakota were, thus, one of the few Native American tribes to
increase in population in the 19th century. The number of Lakota
has now increased to more than 170,000,[6] of whom about 2,000
still speak the Lakota language (Lakȟótiyapi).

After 1720, the Lakota branch of the Seven Council Fires split
into two major sects, the Saône who moved to the Lake Traverse
area on the South Dakota–North Dakota–Minnesota border, and
the Oglála-Sičháŋǧu who occupied the James River valley. However,
by about 1750 the Saône had moved to the east bank of the Missouri
River, followed 10 years later by the Oglála and Brulé (Sičháŋǧu).

The large and powerful Arikara, Mandan, and Hidatsa
villages had long prevented the Lakota from crossing the Missouri.
However, the great smallpox epidemic of 1772–1780 destroyed
three-quarters of these tribes. The Lakota crossed the river into
the drier, short-grass prairies of the High Plains. These newcomers
were the Saône, well-mounted and increasingly confident, who
spread out quickly. In 1765, a Saône exploring and raiding party
led by Chief Standing Bear discovered the Black Hills (the Paha Sapa),
then the territory of the Cheyenne. Ten years later, the Oglála and Brulé
also crossed the river. In 1776, the Lakota defeated the Cheyenne, who
had earlier taken the region from the Kiowa. The Cheyenne then
moved west to the Powder River country, and the Lakota
made the Black Hills their home.

The Cheyenne are one of the Indigenous peoples of the
Great Plains and their language is of the Algonquian language family.
The Cheyenne comprise two Native American tribes, the Só'taeo'o or
Só'taétaneo'o (more commonly spelled as Suhtai or Sutaio) and
the Tsétsêhéstâhese (also spelled Tsitsistas). These tribes merged in
the early 19th century. Today, the Cheyenne people are split into two
federally recognized Nations: the Southern Cheyenne, who are
enrolled in the Cheyenne and Arapaho Tribes in Oklahoma, and
the Northern Cheyenne, who are enrolled in the Northern Cheyenne
Tribe of the Northern Cheyenne Indian Reservation in Montana.

At the time of their first contact with the Europeans, the Cheyenne
were living in the area of what is now Minnesota. At times they have
been allied with the Lakota and Arapaho, and at other points enemies
of the Lakota. In the early 18th century they migrated west across the
Mississippi River and into North and South Dakota, where they adopted
the horse culture. Having settled the Black Hills of South Dakota and the
Powder River Country of present-day Montana, they introduced the horse
culture to Lakota bands about 1730. Allied with the Arapaho, the Cheyenne
pushed the Kiowa to the Southern Plains. In turn, they were pushed
west by the more numerous Lakota.

The Cheyenne Nation or Tsêhéstáno was at one time composed
of ten bands that spread across the Great Plains from southern Colorado
to the Black Hills in South Dakota. They fought their traditional enemies,
the Crow and later (1856–79) the United States Army forces. In the
mid-19th century, the bands began to split, with some bands choosing
to remain near the Black Hills, while others chose to remain near
the Platte Rivers of central Colorado.

The Northern Cheyenne, known in Cheyenne either as
Notameohmésêhese, meaning "Northern Eaters" or simply
as Ohmésêhese meaning "Eaters", live in southeastern Montana
on the Northern Cheyenne Indian Reservation. Tribal enrollment
figures, as of late 2014, indicate that there are approximately
10,840 members, of which about 4,939 reside on the reservation.
Approximately 91% of the population are Native Americans
(full or part race), with 72.8% identifying themselves as
Cheyenne. Slightly more than one quarter of the population
five years or older spoke a language other than English.

The Southern Cheyenne, known in Cheyenne as
Heévâhetaneo'o meaning "Roped People", together with
the Southern Arapaho, form the Cheyenne and Arapaho Tribes,
in western Oklahoma. Their combined population is 12,130,
as of 2008. In 2003, approximately 8,000 of these identified
themselves as Cheyenne, although with continuing intermarriage
it has become increasingly difficult to separate the tribes.

The Apache are culturally related Native American tribes
from the Southwestern United States, and have traditionally
lived in Eastern Arizona, Northern Mexico (Sonora and Chihuahua),
New Mexico, West Texas, and Southern Colorado. These areas are
collectively known as Apacheria. Their collective homelands consist
of high mountains, sheltered and watered valleys, deep canyons,
deserts, and the southern Great Plains. The Apache tribes fought
the invading Spanish and Mexican peoples for centuries. The first
Apache raids on Sonora appear to have taken place during the late
17th century. In 19th-century confrontations during the
American-Indian wars, the U.S. Army found the
Apache to be fierce warriors and skillful strategists.

Apache groups are politically autonomous. The major groups
speak several different languages and developed distinct and
competitive cultures. The current post-colonial division of Apache
groups includes Western Apache, Chiricahua, Mescalero, Jicarilla,
Lipan, and Plains Apache (also known as the Kiowa-Apache).
Apache groups live in Oklahoma and Texas and on reservations
in Arizona and New Mexico. Apache people have moved throughout
the United States and elsewhere, including urban centers. Many
Native American Indians stayed in present-day Mexico in the State
of Chihuahua near the Sierra Madre occidental
called "Sierra Tarahumara"

The people who are known today as Apache were first
encountered by the Conquistadors of the Spanish Crown,
and thus the term Apache has its roots in the Spanish language.
The Spanish first used the term "Apachu de Nabajo" (Navajo) in the 1620s,
referring to people in the Chama region east of the San Juan River. By the
1640s, they applied the term to southern Athabaskan peoples from the
Chama on the east to the San Juan on the west. The ultimate
origin is uncertain and lost to Spanish history.

Modern Apache people today, and the US government,
maintain use of the Spanish term to describe themselves and
tribal functions. Indigenous lineages who also speak the language
that was handed down to them would also refer to themselves and
their people in that language's term Inde meaning "person" and/or
"People". Distant cousins and a subgroup of the Apache, generally,
are the Navajo Peoples who in their own language
refer to themselves as the Diné.

The first known written record in Spanish is by Juan de Oñate in 1598.
The most widely accepted origin theory suggests Apache was
borrowed and transliterated from the Zuni word ʔa·paču
meaning "Navajos" (the plural of paču "Navajo").

Another theory suggests the term comes from Yavapai ʔpačə
meaning "enemy". The Zuni and Yavapai sources are
less certain because Oñate used the term before he had
encountered any Zuni or Yavapai. A less likely origin
may be from Spanish mapache, meaning "raccoon".

The fame of the tribes' tenacity and fighting skills,
probably bolstered by dime novels, was widely known
among Europeans. In early 20th century Parisian
society, the word Apache was adopted into
French, essentially meaning an outlaw.

The term Apachean includes the
related Navajo people.

Since the end of the 15th century, the migration of
Europeans to the Americas has led to centuries of population,
cultural, and agricultural transfer and adjustment between
Old and New World societies, a process known as the
Columbian exchange. Most Native American groups
had historically preserved their histories by oral traditions
and artwork, which has resulted in the first written
sources on the conflict being authored by Europeans.

At the time of first contact, the indigenous cultures were
quite different from those of the proto-industrial and mostly
Christian immigrants. Some of the Northeastern and
Southwestern cultures in particular were matrilineal and
operated on a more collective basis than the Europeans
were familiar with. The majority of Indigenous American
tribes maintained their hunting grounds and agricultural
lands for use of the entire tribe. Europeans at that time had
patriarchal cultures and had developed concepts of individual
property rights with respect to land that were extremely
different. The differences in cultures between the established
Native Americans and immigrant Europeans, as well as shifting
alliances among different nations in times of war, caused extensive
political tension, ethnic violence, and social disruption. Even
before the European settlement of what is now the United States,
Native Americans suffered high fatalities from contact
with European diseases spread throughout the Americas
by the Spanish to which they had yet not acquired immunity.
Smallpox epidemics are thought to have caused the greatest
loss of life for indigenous populations, although estimates of
the pre-Columbian population of what today constitutes the
U.S. vary significantly, from one million to eighteen million.

After the thirteen colonies revolted against Great Britain
and established the United States, President George
Washington and Henry Knox conceived of the idea of
"civilizing" Native Americans in preparation for
assimilation as U.S. citizens. Assimilation (whether
voluntary, as with the Choctaw, or forced) became a consistent
policy through American administrations. During the 19th
century, the ideology of manifest destiny became integral to
the American nationalist movement. Expansion of
European-American populations to the west after the
American Revolution resulted in increasing pressure on
Native American lands, warfare between the groups, and
rising tensions. In 1830, the U.S. Congress passed the Indian
Removal Act, authorizing the government to relocate Native
Americans from their homelands within established states to
lands west of the Mississippi River, accommodating
European-American expansion. This resulted in the ethnic
cleansing of many tribes, with the brutal, forced marches
coming to be known as The Trail of Tears.

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